Education in ancient world. | Indian history of Education.

 Education in the ancient world.

Indian history.

The Hindu way of life.

India is home to one of the oldest civilizations in history. In the second millennium BCE, Indo-European speakers crossed into India and built extensive settlements and strong kingdoms. Over time, the Brahmans, a group of intellectuals, evolved into priests and men of study; the Kshatriyas, a group of nobles and soldiers; the Vaishyas, a group involved in agriculture and trade; and the Shudra, a group of workers and artisans. The Hindus were split into four "classes" known as varnas as a result of this.

In ancient India, religion served as the foundation for all endeavors. It had an all-consuming concern in philosophy, morals, law, and government in addition to prayer and worship. Education had religious overtones, and upper castes were required to study Vedic literature. The learning phases were clearly laid out. The youngster studied in the first time at home in the basic grades. The pranayama, or thread ceremony, was a ritual reserved for boys alone that signaled the start of secondary education and formal learning. It was essentially required for boys from the three upper castes. At the ages of 8, 11, and 12, respectively, the Brahman, Kshatriya, and Vaishya boys underwent this rite. The youngster would leave his father's home and go to his preceptor's ashram, which was a house located in a wooded area. He would be raised by the Acharya as if he were his own kid, receive a free education, and have no boarding or lodging expenses. The student was required to take care of his preceptor's animals, help with home chores, and tend to the sacrifice fires.

The study at this point was limited to the recitation of Vedic mantras (also known as "hymns") and the auxiliary sciences, including phonetics, grammar, astronomy, prosody, and etymology. But the nature of schooling varied depending on the demands of the caste. There was a set course of study for kids in the priesthood class. He had a duty to know the three Vedas, the oldest collection of Hindu scriptures, which is known as trayi-vidya. The student was required to adhere to brahmacharya throughout the entirety of the course at school, as well as in college. This involved dressing simply, subsisting on simple foods, sleeping on a hard surface, and maintaining celibacy.

Typically, the length of the studentship was 12 years. There was no upper age limit for people who desired to continue their education. They would enroll in a higher educational institution or a university presided over by a kulapati after completing their study at an ashrama (a founder of a school of thought). Advanced students could further their education by participating in philosophical debates at a "academy," or parisad. Women were not barred from education, but typically, girls received their education at home.

Depending on the subject, different teaching techniques were used. The student's first assignment was to memorize the specific Veda taught in his school, with emphasis on pronunciation. Comprehension was crucial in the study of literary topics including law, logic, rituals, and prosody. A third technique was the employment of parables, which were used in the Upanishads, or conclusion of the Vedas, for private spiritual instruction.

The most common and effective teaching approach in higher education, such as when teaching Dharma-shastra (also known as "Righteousness Science"), was catechism, in which the student asked questions and the teacher spoke at length about the subjects that were referred to him. The most part was, however, played through memorization.

The introduction of influences from Buddhism.

The Vedic ceremonies and sacrifices had progressively evolved into a highly intricate religion by the end of the 6th century BCE, which benefited the priests but alienated an expanding segment of the populace. Education was increasingly restricted to Brahmans, and non-Brahmans were gradually abandoning the Upanayana. Buddhism and Jainism were two new religious orders that were largely brought about by the formalism and exclusivity of the Brahminic system. Both of them contested the Brahmans' exclusive claims to the priesthood while rejecting the Vedas' legitimacy. They educated everyone, regardless of caste, creed, or sex, using the local language of the community. Buddhism also established the monastic educational system. Buddhist temples' affiliated monasteries fulfilled the dual functions of educating people and preparing people for the priesthood. However, a monastery only educated those who belonged to it. Since day scholars were not accepted, it was unable to meet the demands of the entire community.

The political landscape was experiencing enormous changes at the same time, which had an impact on education. The Vedic system of life, culture, and governance was shaken to its very foundations by the rise of the imperialistic Nanda dynasty around 413 BCE and then of the even more powerful Mauryan approximately 40 years later. The Kshatriyas abandoned their ancient vocation as warriors, the Shudras rose from their slave jobs, and the Brahmans in great numbers left their traditional occupation of teaching in their forest retreats and began working in all kinds of occupations.

These factors brought about radical adjustments in schooling. Growing communities created schools, and day scholars were accepted. Studies were selected at random and without regard to caste. In the sixth century BCE, Taxila had already developed a reputation as a center for advanced learning, and it had since enhanced that reputation. It lacked a college or university in the modern sense of the word, but it was a fantastic center for learning with a number of well-known professors, each of whom had his own school.

Under Ashoka, the most renowned king of India, Buddhism had a significant upsurge in the third century BCE. After his passing, Buddhism met with opposition, and a Hindu counterreformation got under way throughout the nation. There was a sizable laity movement among Buddhists and Hindus around the first century CE. Due to these occurrences, Buddhist monasteries started providing secular as well as religious education, and elementary, secondary, and higher education all saw significant increases in popularity.

Ancient India.

The Gupta and Harsha dynasties and their descendants ruled India for 500 years, from the fourth century CE to the end of the eighth. It was also the era of the development of Indian sciences, mathematics, and astronomy, as well as the universities of Nalanda and Valabhi. Several thousand teachers and students were housed at the university at Nalanda, and they were supported by the income from more than 100 villages. Nalanda attracted students from overseas due to its popularity, but the admissions test was so difficult that only two or three out of ten pupils were admitted. Every day, more than 1,500 educators debated more than 100 distinct dissertations.

These included the Vedas, reasoning, grammar, Buddhist and Hindu philosophy (Sankha, Nyaya, etc.), astronomy, and medicine. Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala were three other outstanding Buddhist study centers of the post-Gupta period. Science also made significant advances. The finest mathematician of his day was Aryabhata, who lived in the latter half of the fifth century. He introduced the ideas of zero and decimals. From botany to astronomy, from military science to civil engineering, Varahamihira of the Gupta era was a profound student of all the sciences and arts. The medical sciences also made significant advancements. The doctors allegedly practiced more than eight different medical specialties, including surgery and pediatrics.

Prior to the Muslim conquests, which began in the 10th century, these were the major advancements in education. Almost every village had a schoolmaster who was funded by contributions from the community. Brahman acaryas ran Hindu schools of learning at their homes, known as pathasalas in western India and toll in Bengal. Each offered instruction in a highly specialized field of knowledge and could accommodate no more than 30 students. The number of bigger or smaller institutions that were specifically funded for the promotion of learning by rajas and other donors also increased. Either the king's capital—Kanauji, Dhar, Mithila, or Ujjayini—or a sacred site—Varanasi, Ajodhya, Kanchi, or Nasik—was the customary location of learning centers. Hindu mathas (monks' dwellings) and temple colleges also appeared alongside Buddhist viharas (monasteries) in various regions of the nation. Additionally, there were agrahara villages, which were benevolently granted to the colonies of erudite Brahmans to allow them to carry out their scriptural obligations, including teaching. Girls were typically homeschooled and received their technical education through an apprenticeship program.

Asian and Indian influences.

Without talking about how Indian culture impacted Sri Lanka and Central and Southeast Asia, a history of ancient Indian education would be lacking. It was accomplished in part thanks to commerce and cultural ties, and in part thanks to political power. As early as the first century CE, Khotan in Central Asia was home to a renowned Buddhist vihara. Many Chinese pilgrims stayed there rather than traveling to India, and there were some Indian intellectuals who resided there. Numerous Chinese and Tibetan monks studied in Indian Buddhist viharas, and Indian pandits (scholars) were also invited to China and Tibet.

Southeast Asia saw the fastest rate of Indianization. Hindu kings ruled Indochina and the numerous East Indian archipelago islands from Sumatra to New Guinea for 1,500 years starting in the second century CE. Thus, a general blending of cultures led to the creation of a larger India. The immaculate Sanskrit writing on several of these countries' inscriptions reveals the impact of Indian civilization. There are allusions to Indian philosophies, mythology, and tales, as well as Indian astrological concepts and scales. As long as Hindus were in power in India, Hinduism continued to have a strong influence on these countries. By the fifteenth century CE, this impact had vanished.

Earlier China.

A simple agricultural civilization with the family as its fundamental unit required education in ancient China. The "bamboo books" that were then recorded as being in existence were at best of limited use because paper and the writing brush had not yet been created. The main educational approaches were oral instruction and teaching by example.

One of education's main goals was the development of character. Moral instruction emphasized the value of interpersonal relationships and the family as the cornerstone of society. The most significant virtue was seen to be filial piety, with a focus on regard for the old. Government was tasked with providing education in order to enable the gifted to work in government and maintain the moral and ethical underpinning of society.

In the Zhou era.

Xi Zhou (Western) (1046–771 BCE).

At the time, the monarch of Zhou was revered as the "Son of Heaven" by the lords who ruled the feudal states throughout the feudal era.

In the capital cities of the feudal states and the capital city of Zhou, schools were founded for the sons of aristocracy. According to documented sources, men and women attended the public schools in the feudal states that were located in the villages and hamlets after working in the fields. For both the governing classes and the general populace, there were primary and secondary schools. Homemaking and the feminine virtues that ensured the stability of the family structure were the main topics of separate studies for females.

The "six arts"—rituals, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics—were the focus of education for the nobility. They made up what might be referred to as the era's "liberal education." Mere memory work was condemned. The old educational philosophy was, in the words of Confucius, "learning without thought is labor lost."

The era of the Qin-Han.

Autocracy in Qin (221–206 BCE).

Legalism was the first school of thought to get governmental support among those that emerged in China's classical era. The Qin dynasty's policies were built on Legalist ideals, which emphasized a powerful state with a centralized government. Many of its policies received criticism from academics, particularly those who upheld the teachings of the ancient sages, because they diverged so much from previous practices. On the suggestion of a Legalist minister, the ruler—who referred to himself as the first emperor—ordered a clean break with the past and the outlawment of historical texts and works of literature that extolled former tyrants in order to quell the criticism. A large number of books were gathered and burned, and hundreds of academics were executed.

The Qin dynasty was criticized for the burning of books and the persecution of scholars, but it also built the framework for a cohesive empire and made it possible for the succeeding dynasty to strengthen its position at home and abroad. The unification efforts in education included a reform and simplification of the written script as well as the adoption of a standardized script that was understandable across the entire nation. The process of creating uniform textbooks for primary schools has begun. The awkward stylus and bamboo slips were replaced by writing on silk after the development of the hair-based writing brush and the creation of ink.

Grants during the Han (206 BCE–220 CE).

Many of the policies of its short-lived predecessor were changed by the Han dynasty. The most significant transformation was the move from Legalism to Confucianism. The once-banned literature were now highly appreciated, and the classics took center stage in school curricula. A diligent search was made to find the manuscripts and books that scholars had hidden in secret locations in addition to recovering the banned publications. A great deal of meticulous work went into copying and editing, and the Han scholars' textual and interpretive studies gave the study of the classics a new significance. Paper production fueled this resurgence of learning even further. Higher critique was practiced much before it did in the West, as a result of critical analysis of ancient writings.

The Han dynasty produced renowned historians, philosophers, poets, artists, and other academics. Sima Qian, whose encyclopedic history of China from the beginning to the first century BCE is deserving of special note, deserves to be called the "Chinese Father of History" for his high caliber of knowledge. Ban Zhao, a prominent literary woman, was chosen as poet laureate. Ancient texts were compiled, edited, and given classic status by a bibliographer. It was written the first Chinese dictionaries. Confucian scholars had mostly been responsible for the discovery and interpretation of ancient literature, therefore from this point forward Chinese scholarship became more and more associated with Confucianism. The majority of the Han emperors officially approved Confucianism as the foundation for running the government and handling state affairs. However, there was nothing done to shut off other schools of thought.

On a national and local level, there were various schools. Private schools were where most of the study of the classics and advanced literature was done as private education continued to grow in popularity. A national institution with 30,000 students had significant influence both domestically and overseas. Now that the classics had taken center stage in the curriculum, archery, music, and ceremonies were still taught. There was still a tradition of comprehensive instruction in the six arts.

Buddhism is introduced.

The Han dynasty saw a rise in commercial and cultural exchanges as well as territorial expansion. At this time, Buddhism was introduced. Early Buddhist knowledge was likely introduced to China through traders, envoys, and monks. A personal interest in Buddhism developed by the first century CE, and an emperor dispatched an expedition to India to learn more and bring back Buddhist literature. Later, Buddhist texts and other publications were translated into Chinese by Indian missionaries and Chinese intellectuals.

Indian missionaries introduced new cultural influences in addition to preaching a new religion. Chinese understanding in these areas was strengthened by Indian mathematics and astronomical concepts. Chinese medicine benefited as well. Buddhist and Indian influences were visible in the architecture and artistic forms. Chinese music began to incorporate Hindu chanting.

However, for a few centuries following its invention, Buddhism exhibited no signs of becoming popularity. Confucian scholars who had little interest in Buddhist teachings and who were indifferent with the practical difficulties of moral and political life dominated Han scholarship, which was preoccupied in the study of ancient texts. In addition, Buddhism's perspective on evil and its advocacy of celibacy and emigration from this world were incompatible with China's traditions. Daoist scholars were more attracted to study the new philosophy since they found in Buddhism a lot of ideas that didn't appear all that unlike from their own spiritual message. Although they weren't in the spotlight during the Han era, several of them contributed to the translation of Buddhist writings.

Following the end of the Han dynasty, there were many hundred years of conflict, warfare, and invasions from outside China. It was not until the end of the sixth century that China was once more united. Buddhism started to spread throughout China around this time. Chinese Buddhist literature was created as a result of the literary work of Chinese monks, and this was the first step in the process that turned an imported religion into a Chinese religion and way of thinking.

Early Hebrews.

As in many preindustrial cultures, education in ancient Israel was first primarily familial, with the mother instructing the young and the girls while the father took on the duty of teaching the growing males moral, religious, and handicraft training. This trait persisted in Jewish education since motherhood and filiation were usually used to describe the relationship between instructor and student. Furthermore, schooling was strict and demanding; the Hebrew word musar denotes both education and corporal punishment.

The Jewish people learned to create a different kind of education once they were settled in Palestine, at the meeting point of the great literate civilizations of the Middle East, at the start of the first millennium BCE. This education involved instructing a specialized, professional class of scribes in the then-relatively esoteric art of writing, which was a Phoenician invention.

Writing was initially useful because the scribe could create contracts, make orders, keep accounts, and keep records. The role of scribes in the royal administration has been extensively documented since the ages of David and Solomon due to their ability to accept written orders and afterwards be trusted with their execution. The instruction given to these scribes also included character development and establishing the high ideal of wisdom, as befitting the servants of the king.

In Israel, writing also found use in the realm of religion. And once more, the scribe served as an educational agent. He was the one who established the canonical text and faithfully copied the divine Law. He was the one who read the Law aloud to himself and the populace, taught it, and translated it when Hebrew ceased to be the vernacular or "living language" (into Greek in Alexandria, into Aramaic in Palestine); he also clarified it, offered commentary on it, and looked into how it applied to specific situations. Following the destruction of Israel and Judah in 722 and 586 BCE, respectively, and their submission to foreign power, Jewish education began to be increasingly characterized by this religious orientation. With a "house of the book" (bet ha-safer) and a "house of instruction" (bet ha-midrash) roughly equivalent to elementary and secondary or higher levels of education, the synagogue where the community gathered became more than just a place of worship. However, homeschooling of girls persisted.

Of course, the importance of writing in this Asian culture shouldn't be overstated; by far, oral instruction still reigned supreme. Although a student might pick up the ability to read aloud, or rather to intone, his major focus was to memorize sacred Law passage after passage. However, in addition to this written Law, there also developed interpretations or exegesis of it that were initially only oral but gradually reduced to writing—first in the form of memoranda or aide-mémoire engraved on tablets or notebooks, then in genuine books. As a result of the spread of this holy literature, educational initiatives had to be expanded and divided into multiple levels: elementary, intermediate, and advanced, the latter of which was offered in several locations throughout Palestine and later in Babylonia. One of the most crucial elements in allowing Judaism to survive the national tragedies of 70 and 135 CE, which included the seizure and subsequent destruction of Jerusalem, was this spiritually grounded education. The only language they used for worship, studying the Law, tradition, and consequently instruction, the Jews clung to Hebrew throughout their exile. From this came the adoration the teacher received and continues to get throughout Jewish communities.

Early Greeks.

Origins.

The Mycenaean civilization, which itself was the heir to the pre-Hellenic civilization of Minoan Crete, dates back to approximately 1400–1100 BCE. From there, the history of the Hellenic language and the Hellenic people follow. The Mycenaean civilization consisted of little monarchy of an Oriental style, governed by a bureaucracy, and it appears to have run an educational system intended for the training of scribes that was comparable to those of the prehistoric Middle Eastern civilizations. The Greek Dark Age, which lasted roughly from the 11th to the 8th century BCE, was a period of obscurity, but there was no continuity between this education and what would follow.

When the Greek world emerged in history, it had completely changed into a society ruled by a military aristocracy like that pictured in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Sons of the nobility during this time received their education at the court of the prince in the context of a guild companionship of warriors: the young nobleman was educated through the guidance and example of a senior that he had been entrusted to or had entrusted himself, a senior that he admired and loved. It was in this environment of virulent camaraderie that the distinctive ideal of Greek love that would forever distinguish Hellenic civilization and profoundly impact its conception of education itself—for example, in the connection of master to pupil—began to take shape. The great epics of Homer and Hesiod were being spread across the remote Greek towns of the Mediterranean at this time, and a new, civilized civilization was already beginning to take shape, thus these warriors of the Archaic period were not uncouth barbarians. The dominating elites' educational upbringing included a crucial component of well-developed dance, poetry, and instrumental music. A further development in Greek culture was the idea of aret. The epics of Hesiod and Homer exalted physical and military strength and promoted the ideal of the educated patriot-warrior who embodied this cardinal virtue of aret—a difficult-to-translate term that encompasses the virtues of military skill, moral greatness, and educational training. It was a code of honor that recognized it as natural to be the target of someone's hate or envy and made the virtues of pride and jealousy the inspiration for heroic deeds. The veneration of Homer, which up until the end of antiquity (and even later in Byzantium) was to form the cornerstone of Greek culture and, consequently, of Greek education, would uphold this "agonistic" ideal from generation to generation: the cult of the hero, of the champion, and of high performance, which found an outlet outside of battles in games or contests (Agnes), especially in the field of athletics, the most renowned of which being the Olympic Games,

Greek education underwent significant modifications as a result of the political developments brought on by the city-development. state's There emerged a shared ideal of dedication to the community, according to which the city-state (polis) was everything to its inhabitants and gave rise to mankind. The strategic military revolution that saw the success of heavy infantry, the hoplites, foot soldiers strongly equipped and in tight formation, reinforced this subordination of the individual exploit to group discipline.

Sparta.

Sparta, the most prosperous city between the eighth and seventh century BCE, is where one may best appreciate the diversity and complexity of this prehistoric civilization. The events planned around the city's religious festivals serve as a reminder of the high level of artistic refinement that education was carried to. Both young men and women participated in a variety of processions, dances, and singing and instrumental competitions. Equally important to both sexes was physical education, which was elevated by participation in national or international competitions. At the Olympic Games, the Spartans frequently won more than half of the top spots. However, military and civic education took center stage because it was believed that the citizen-soldier would be prepared to fight—and, if necessary, to die—for his nation.

Since around 550 BCE, when a conservative reaction triumphed at Sparta and installed a militarist and aristocratic regime, this last characteristic has not only been dominant but exclusive. An education fit for men of a martial caste totally replaced the arts and sports. A severe eugenic program mercilessly destroyed unhealthy and disfigured children, and girls' education was prioritized over their role as future mothers. Children were raised by the women up to the age of seven, already in an environment of severity and harshness. From the age of seven to twenty, all aspects of education—properly speaking, agog—were the sole responsibility of the state.

The male Spartan youth were organized into formations based on escalating age groups, and they were then subdivided into smaller units under the command of senior or junior officers. They were gradually cut off from their families and forced to live in garrisons as a result of their collective education. The boy was inadequately clothed, forced to sleep on the ground, given meager food, instructed to steal to augment his rations, and exposed to strict punishment all in an effort to get him ready for military service. His virility and combativeness were cultivated by hardening him to blows, which explains the function of ritual fights between groups of adolescents and the institution of the krypteia, a midnight expedition meant to frighten both the lower classes of slaves (helots) and to improve the warrior's strength. His virility and combativeness were honed by hardening him to blows, which explains the function of ritual fights between boy groups and the institution of the krypteia, a nighttime expedition meant to frighten the lower classes of slaves (helots) as well as train the future fighter in ambushes and tactical maneuvers. Of course, he also received direct training in wielding weapons and performing formation maneuvers. The Spartan was schooled under a rigid code of discipline to blindly accept the orders of his superiors as a result of this puritanical education, which was conducted in an environment of austerity and had the interests of the state elevated into a preeminent category. Curiously, the youngster was also taught deception, lying, and theft—all virtues when applied to the foreigner, who was the target of mistrust and Machiavellianism.

In spite of Sparta's lengthy reign as the most militarily and diplomatically powerful city in the entire Greek world and its victory over rival Athens following the bloody Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), its implacably logical education was unable to stop the city from degenerating. Sparta never let up, though; in fact, throughout the years, the rigor and ferocity were increased, even though such behavior was becoming more and more outmoded and useless. The youngsters competed in surviving flagellation under the watchful eyes of tourists drawn by the horrific sight, and rites of initiation were transformed into barbaric tests of endurance. This took place during an era of total peace when Sparta was just a small provincial city under the Roman Empire, without both independence and an army.

Athens.

Athens, as opposed to Sparta, was the first to forego schooling that was focused on future military obligations, starting at a time that is difficult to pinpoint (around the end of the 7th or throughout the 6th century). Armed conflict was simply a sport in Athens; although the citizen was always required to defend the country when necessary and able, the civil component of life and culture predominated. Although it should be recalled that the slave and the resident alien were always excluded from the body politic, Athenian education evolved in line with the city's rising democratization. Even in its most full form, which Athens acquired in the fourth century BCE, democracy was always to be the way of life of a minority—roughly 10 to 15 percent of the population, according to estimates. The practice of graceful athletics was influenced by the continuous emphasis on the noble life in Athens culture—that of the Homeric knight, without the combative element. While some of these, like equestrian and hunting, have mostly always been the preserve of an aristocratic and rich elite, the different sports, which were first practiced only by the sons of the great families, have become more and more popular.

Education of children.

In those early years, schools had started to emerge, perhaps based on models from the eastern Mediterranean and staffed by private professors. However, the most recent references are more recent. Schools mentioned by Herodotus and Pausanias date to 496 and 491 BCE, respectively. Didaskaleion, which means "a place for instruction," is the phrase used. School, which refers to leisure and implies that education is the domain of the wealthy, was also starting to catch on. There was no single institution; rather, every activity took place in a different location. A form of chaperone known as the paidaggos, who was typically a well-respected slave in the parents' household, would accompany the young boy of privileged rank. The kid learned his letters and numbers by scratching them with a stylus on a wax-coated wooden tablet as instructed by the writing instructor, also known as a grammatists. The Grammatik’s provided more advanced formal literacy, but only to those who were properly leisured. This was mostly in a study of the poets, playwrights, and historians. The lyre-playing kitharistes' education in Hesiod and Homer's mythological narratives was of utmost importance. In addition, the wrestling school, or palestrae, which was a component of the gymnasium, a more complete institution, was required to provide physical education and military training to all boys.

Education's moral component was not ignored. The "knowing and good" man, or kales k'agathos, was the epitome of the Attic ideal. The teachers were as concerned with guiding the child's progress in the different subjects taught to him as they were with keeping an eye on his good behavior and character development. Poetry served to disseminate all of the conventional wisdom, which blended two currents: the old Homeric ideal of the importance of competitiveness and valorous endeavor and the ethic of the citizen represented in the moralizing elegies of the sixth-century legislator Solon. The development of professional sports and the demands of its specialization, on the one hand, and the development of the strictly intellectual disciplines, which had made great strides since the time of the first philosophers in the 5th century BCE, on the other, soon disrupted this ideal balance between the education of the body and the mind.

Higher learning.

With the advent of the Sophists, a group of primarily foreign teachers who were Socrates' contemporaries and rivals, a system of higher education that was accessible to everyone—or at least to those who had the time and resources—began to take shape (c. 470–399 BCE). Up until that point, the highest forms of culture had remained esoteric, being passed down by the master to a select group of disciples, as in the case of the early medical schools at Cnidus and Cos, or inside the confines of a religious brotherhood requiring initiate rank. In general, Greek society felt a new need, especially in the most vibrant cities like Athens, where political life had become intensely developed. The Sophists sought to fill this need. From that point forward, taking part in public events replaced athletic competition and exquisite leisure pursuits as the top employment satisfying the ambition of the Greek man; instead, political action was where his valor, his desire to establish himself and to triumph, would find expression.

Professional educators known as the Sophists created a system of higher learning whose financial success attested to and promoted its social utility and practical efficacy. They established the public lecture as a literary subgenre, which would go on to have long-term success. It was a teaching procedure that was focused on educating students for political engagement, which was a completely realistic direction. The Sophists offered little more than a method for succeeding in politics, which involved, above all, being able to make one's point of view prevail in every situation. They did not claim to be transmitting or seeking out the truth about man or existence. The program consisted of the two most thriving humanistic sciences of antiquity—the art of logical argumentation, or dialectic, and the art of persuasive speech, or rhetoric. By extracting the general principles and logical frameworks from experience, the Sophists created these disciplines, enabling the theoretical transmission of knowledge from teacher to student.

As the heir to the older aristocratic heritage, Socrates rejected the Sophists' pedagogy and was concerned by their radical utilitarianism. He questioned if virtue could be taught, especially for something as base as money. Being a descendant of ancient philosophers, Socrates believed that knowledge and understanding, rather than the spirit of efficiency and power, represented the highest goal of man and, thus, of education.

However, the primary forms of Classical Greek higher education did not become formally organized until the beginning of the 4th century BCE. The philosopher Plato (c. 428-348/347), who probably launched his school—the Academy—in 387, and the orator Isocrates (436-338), who formed his school around 390, collaborated and competed to create this.

Plato was the most eminent of Socrates' pupils and hailed from a long line of aristocracy. Socrates was exiled from Athens and from public life as a result of his accusation and execution by what Plato saw to be an ignorant society. He left Athens for around ten years, during which time he traveled throughout the Mediterranean, and upon his return, he established a school close to the Acadome Grove, which bears his name. In order to prepare for their positions as leaders, the elite group of academics that congregated there debated philosophical issues. According to Plato, a society where the kings are philosophers and the philosophers are kings must be educated if it is to have good administration.

The literary dialogues of Plato offer a complete picture of his philosophy of education. It was centered primarily on the study of dialectic (the art of precise verbal reasoning), which, in his opinion, when properly pursued, allows for the removal of misunderstandings and confusions and the determination of the nature of underlying truth. The discussions show that the search for the Good—the overarching principle that unites all of existence on earth—is the ultimate educational goal.

Plato's Republic, his most well-known dialogue, lays forth his educational philosophy. According to him, there are two parts of the world: the visible, or that which can be observed with the senses, and the intelligible, or that which is composed of timeless, universal forms or ideas that can only be understood by the intellect. The realm of appearances and the realm of beliefs are two divisions of the visible realm itself. Plato said that human perceptions of "reality" are solely made up of outward "appearances," and that only ideas and beliefs can be inferred from them. He claimed that the majority of people are stuck in this visible world of opinion and that only a small number of people can enter the intelligible realm. This elite (Plato referred to them as "persons of gold") can learn about authentic reality, which is made up of such forms as the Good, the True, the Beautiful, and the Just, through a rigorous 15-year program of higher education focused on the study of dialectics and mathematical reasoning. Only those who make it through this training, according to Plato, are truly qualified for the top positions in the government and are equipped to handle the most noble of all responsibilities: upholding and administering justice.

Isocrates' opposing school was a lot more grounded and practical. It also sought to achieve a kind of wisdom, although one that was based on finding reasonable solutions to everyday issues. Isocrates, in contrast to Plato, aimed to foster the spirit of geometry rather than the character of elegance, cunning, or finesse. His students were required to follow a study plan that was more literary than scientific. In addition to gymnastics and music, its fundamentals included a thorough study of rhetoric that spanned five or six years and covered theory, analysis of famous works, imitation of works, and eventually practical exercises. It also included a study of Homeric classics.

These two parallel systems of higher learning and culture were not entirely at odds with one another; rather, they both resisted the cynical pragmatism of the Sophists and had an impact on one another. Isocrates did encourage simple mathematics as a form of mental exercise or gymnastics and did permit a scattering of philosophy to shed light on the issues of human existence. For his part, Plato acknowledged the value of literary beauty and philosophical discourse. The two traditions resemble two species of the same genus, and through generations of argument, the Classical culture was enriched without losing its cohesiveness.

Before leaving the Hellenistic era, there is one more outstanding individual to consider. This individual served as a transitional figure from one age to the next because he was the young prince's tutor and ultimately the forerunner of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. Aristotle (384-322 BCE), a student of Plato who shared some of his views on education, thought that education should be governed by the state and that its primary goal should be the preparation of citizens.

Although he was no hermit and was well-versed in public affairs, he shared some of Plato's concerns about democracy but declared that he preferred limited democracy, or "polity," to other systems of government. Additionally, his worldliness made him more focused on the observation of particular things and less on the quest for concepts in the Platonic paradigm. He had a particularly strong desire for systematization, logical organization, and classification.

The education of children was also standardized. From birth to age seven, he was to go through his first phase of physical development and learn how to withstand adversity. His education would cover the essentials of gymnastics, music, reading, writing, and enumeration from the age of seven till puberty. From puberty to the age of 17, the student would focus more on precise knowledge, continuing to study music and mathematics as well as grammar, literature, and geography. Only a select fraction of the best students would eventually pursue further study as they matured into young men, developing encyclopedic and deeply intellectual interests in the biological and physical sciences, ethics, rhetoric, and philosophy. Thus, compared to Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum was considerably more empirical.